A Study About German Architecture Essay

My German ascendants are believed to hold come from the northwesterly part of Germany perchance around the metropolis of Hamburg. The metropolis of Hamburg was a major port in the early 1900s and was home to transporting to Africa, East Asia, South America and India. After the desolation of World War 1 on the state, Hamburg lost many of its trade paths and its booming economic system slowed with the remainder of Germany. This made the former extremely popular trade port now a port to the new universe. It is believed that my ascendants came from this country around the clip that the war had ended. I believe they came to the United States in hopes of freedom and a new manner of life. The clime in Hamburg is really mild, in its warmest months of June, July, and August the mean temperature is 70 grades Fahrenheit, while in the coldest months of December, January, and February the norm is 30 grades Fahrenheit. Hamburg is located in the southmost portion of the Jutland peninsula on the Alb e River. Although in their pure signifier hunting and assemblage, every bit good as gardening and pastoralism are non subsistent schemes of today in the German civilization, thoughts from each are used in a more modern manner when it comes to the states usage of agribusiness. Though agribusiness is non the largest subsistence scheme ( about 5 % of labourers work in agricultural ) there is said to be every bit much as 53 % of land in Germany used for agricultural intents. There is about 15 % of pastoral land used for cowss, hogs, domestic fowl and some sheep. Much of the dairy land is found in the southern part of Germany, hogs and cowss are frequently grazing land in the mountain parts. To bring forth the nutrient, milk, and wool these domesticated animate beings provide there are many engineerings used today which were non originally portion of pastoralism. These many types of engineerings used in cultivating animate beings include: a type of fence or lodging to maintain the animate beings c losely confined ( henhouses for poulets ) , machines to assist bring forth and milk the cattles, automatic eating systems are sometimes used to feed the animate beings, round bailer for hay, nutrient bins or silos to hive away nutrients such as grain and hay, unreal insemination kits are used to increase the quality of construct and increase the construct rate, shearing tools are used to acquire the wool off of the sheep, Canis familiariss are besides frequently used to heard the sheep. The division of labour in cultivating these animate beings has shifted over clip from labour intensive and human powered, to more of a technologically goaded system that includes machinery and other powered equipment. Human labour is still needed but non in the capacity as it was in old old ages, human accomplishment is besides a chief portion of the division of labour. A Shearer is needed to clean the sheep of its wool, veterinaries to give shootings and assist maintain the animate beings healthy, e very bit good as trained persons who know how to properly tally and set the powered equipment. Horticultural merchandises that are produced in Germany are dependent on the part of the state where they are adult, as the terrains vary. In the northern part and parts of eastern Germany you will happen merchandises such as sugar Beta vulgariss and cereals ( grain corn and corn-cob mix ) which make up about 56 % of the cultivable land. 17 % of this cultivable land is inhabited by eatage harvests, largely in parts where population is scarce. Industrial harvests such as oil-rich seeds, hops, baccy, herbs, and spice workss are produced on about 15 % of this cultivable land. Approximately 12 % of the cultivable land is fallow or produces root harvests such as carrots and yams. Vegetables and fruits such as grapes used to do vino compile around 1 % of the cultivable land and are found in the hills of the many coastal river metropoliss that are really common in Germany ; most of which prevarication on the Rhine and the Mecca rivers. There are many agricultural engineerings used to acquir e the most out of these harvests with every bit small aid from the human manus as possible. Large machines such as combines, tractors, harvest plantation owners and ploughs allow for the usage of a few human custodies and supply the ability to reap many acres.A Irrigation systems are used to assist the harvests grow and are frequently set up in Fieldss like overhanging sprinkler systems, fertiliser is used to maintain the dirt rich and is modernly used in liquid signifier and is by and large held in a armored combat vehicle that is attached to either a tractor or harvest plantation owner, seeders which are used to works the harvests, there is besides other cultivated land and reaping equipment available for usage. The division of labour is separated by physical labourers who rely on human power to make things such as picking stones and puting up irrigation systems to trained workers who operate the heavy machinery. Most of the farms where this takes topographic point are household o wned and run on less than 150 estates. More than 75 % of the land used to cultivate harvests and animate beings in Germany is found in the western part, this land allows for the state to provide themselves with about 80 % of their one-year nutrient demands. Germany is one of Europe ‘s top industrial powers and is besides Europe ‘s prima exporter of vehicles, chemicals and machinery. Its strongest industrial countries are vehicles, chemicals, machinery, machine tools, steel, Fe, coal, and a certain drink – beer. Top companies in the German auto industry include BMW, Audi, Porsche, Mercedes, and Volkswagen. These companies help Germany remain near the top of the universe ‘s automotive industry. The fabrication of these autos is done in assembly and production mills where the usage of machinery, robotics, every bit good as human accomplishment and labour are the chief divisions of engineering and the assembly line is the most common signifier of production. The division of labour in the automotive industry includes extremely educated and skilled workers who work in the assembly workss as the applied scientists and directors. There is besides pay labourers, most of which work straight on the line bring forthing part s that help set your auto together from its engine constituents, to axles, to organic structure casting. Other pay labourers include those who adhere windscreens, install Windowss, tyres and other pieces that when set together do up your German car. The electronic revolution is really prevailing in Germany and much like the United States and the remainder of the universe is tilting towards the usage of information engineering to garner information of many different topics. These information engineerings include things such as banking where you can put up direct sedimentation with your employer every bit good as keep path of your personal fiscal history information and touristry which allows you to do travel programs without the usage of an agent. Other information engineerings include transit, instruction, gas pumps, and the largest of all communicating by manner of the cellular phone. Cell phones allow people to pass on from any location at any clip of the twenty-four hours, they are besides now frequently used as nomadic computing machines which merely increases their convenience. For these nomadic communicating devices to work decently engineerings include computing machine hardware and package to pull off the different cell phone histories, every bit good as towers and orbiters to supply a signal and frequence for these phones to be expeditiously used. The division of labour includes IT people, who create and maintain web sites and computing machine scheduling, physical labourers who are used to put up the towers and do other necessary field work, every bit good as directors who run the twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours retail operations and gross revenues people who sell the phones and supply information to accepting people a companies. The German political system is a centralised system which means people yield their sovereignty to this centralised authorities by following regulations and Torahs that have been laid out for the citizens to follow. Germanys Basic Law or Constitution divides the power of authorities into three subdivisions. They have a bicameral parliamentary legislative assembly which includes the federal council besides known as the Bundesrat, which holds 69 members, all of which are nominated by the province and the Bundestag ( federal assembly ) which has over 600 members who are elected by popular ballot to a four twelvemonth term. The executive subdivision is made up of the President ( head of province ) and Chancellor ( caput of authorities ) . The president is elected to a five twelvemonth term by the federal assembly and an equal figure of delegates from each province parliament, while the Chancellor is elected to a four twelvemonth term by the federal assembly. The Federal Constitutional Cou rt is elected every bit by both the Bundestag and Bundesrat and do up their judicial subdivision of authorities. Germany uses negative reciprocality when it comes to their informal economic and personal manner of interchanging goods and services. This means that the individual who is supplying the good or service is gaining from the dealing more so than the receiving system or purchaser. Economic exchange comes in the signifier of market exchange where there is a excess of goods that are sold for a net income and is based on the degrees of supply and demand. Germany is officially based on the economic system of capitalist economy, which promotes economic growing. Capitalism is when goods, services, labour, and resources are sold off for a net income at market where benefits travel to both the buyer and provider, even though the provider is gaining the most. The dislocation of economic sectors in Germany include 72 % third or service, about 27 % secondary or fabrication, while merely about 1 % is primary or the extraction of natural stuffs. The GDP per capita fell from $ 35,900 in 2008 to $ 34,200 in 2009, while the unemployment rate rose from 7.8 & A ; in 2008 to 8.2 % in 2009, demoing that the economic system was and still is experiencing the sick effects of the planetary economic state of affairs. There are many different faiths practiced freely in Germany under the basic jurisprudence and they all pattern monotheism which concludes they all believe in one supreme higher being. The figure one faith is Christianity with about 67 per centum who are chiefly located in southern and eastern Germany. The figure two faith is Islam at around 4 per centum, most of whom are immigrants from Turkey. The remainder of the spiritual sector is made up of largely Buddhism and Judaism. There is besides a strong population of Germans who believe there is no God and pattern Atheism. Though most of the people in Germany do non go to church on a regular footing most still recognize spiritual ceremonials such as vacations, baptisms, matrimonies, and funerals. Some spiritual vacations include Good Friday, Easter Monday, Fronleichnam ( 60 yearss after Easter ) , and Weihnachten ( German name for Christmas ) . Though faith is practiced freely there are Torahs in topographic point that revenue enhanceme nt members of their several churches to assist fund any and all church related disbursals. This revenue enhancement can either be collected by the community the church is in or the province. If you are non portion of a church that collects these revenue enhancements so you merely do non hold to pay the church revenue enhancement. Marriage in Germany is typical to that of the United States as people are free to take who they marry which is known as love lucifer, while the type of matrimony practiced is a monogynist one, intending there is merely one partner. Their post-marital abode is neolocal, this is when the honeymooners get their ain place outside of the bride or grooms abode. Descent in Germany is unilineal, intending that affinity can be traced through either the female parent ‘s or father ‘s line. Germans refer to kin fundamentally the same manner that we do in the United States though distant relations such as 2nd cousins or great uncles have no specific differentiation. Kinship is of import to the German people and is shown most during vacations, household assemblages, and other of import parts in a individual ‘s life. The in-between category is the most prevailing societal category at about 54 per centum of the population, though there has been much noted to the fact that this cate gory is and has been acquiring smaller over the past old ages. Cultural groups in Germany consist chiefly of Germans at around 92 per centum, while 2.4 per centum are of Turkish descent, while the other class consists chiefly of Greek, Italian, Russian, Polish, and Spanish at about 6 per centum. Though adult females in Germany do hold equal rights they are still strongly leaned upon for childrearing patterns every bit good as twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours household responsibilities. Watching the picture â€Å" Romantic Germany † every bit good as questioning person who really lived in Germany truly helped me to better understand the civilization in which they live. Most big metropoliss every bit good as tourer finishs are located on one of the major waterways that flow through this state. Outside, in the hills of these metropoliss is where you will happen many household owned vineries every bit good as smaller pastoralist farms that house animate beings such as cowss and sheep. Lake Constance, the biggest lake in Germany is one of the most popular recreational and tourer finishs in Europe. It is located on the Rhine in the northern part of the Alps and is surrounded by neighbouring states Switzerland and Austria, there are besides many dumbly populated metropoliss along the seashore of this lake and you will most likely discovery farm animal graze in the hills of these metropoliss. One of the state ‘s most celebrated and recognizable festivals is Oktoberfest the universe ‘s largest just held every twelvemonth in Munich which consists of some 6 million participants in its 16 – 18 twenty-four hours entireness. The festival is known for its great nutrient, music, carnival drives, and beer imbibing. The chief athletics in Germany is soccer and you will ever hold an chance to take part as the state is home to over 1,000 club squads. Other popular athleticss in Germany include bobsleighing, luge, and skeleton partially because they are the lone state in the universe to hold four paths for each athletics. Other popular recreational activities include biking and boosting through the countryside. Germany ‘s most celebrated professional jocks include Boris Becker and Steffi Graf, both of which are former expansive sweep winning tennis participants along with former expression one universe title-holder Michael Schumacher. Bernard Langer is a erstw hile Masterss golf title-holder and former universe figure one golf player. Presently the most popular German jock executing in an American athleticss conference is former MVP and power forward for the Dallas Mavericks Dirk Nowitzki.

Qualitatively Compare The Problem Solving Behavior Education Essay

The intent of this survey is to depict and to qualitatively compare the job work outing behaviour of immature schooled sellers in informal and formal scenes. Ten sellers were consistently selected from a purposive population of 25 sellers in two unfastened markets in Beirut. Sellers in the sample varied in schooling, age, and peddling experiences. Ethnographic instance survey was the general methodological attack for this survey. Four methods of roll uping informations were used: Participant observation, interviewing, aggregation of artefacts, and analysis of papers. Interviews ranged from informal conversations, to semi-structured interviews, to formal interviews Two hebdomads after the semi-structured interviews and based on minutess executed by the topics in the informal scene, a formal trial was administered. Items of the formal trial were presented as either calculation exercises or as word jobs. Upon completion of the formal trial, each topic was asked to explicate processs use d in job resolution. All interviews were taped and transcribed for analysis. The process used for informations analysis was analytic initiation which involved scanning the information for classs and for relationships among these classs. Upon comparing the job work outing behaviours of sellers across informal and formal scenes, two findings emerged. First, sellers employed computational schemes in the informal scene which are different from those used when work outing calculation exercisings in the formal scene. Second, the intuitive computational schemes that topics used in the informal scene were indistinguishable to those employed when work outing word jobs and were associated with a higher success rate than computational schemes used when work outing calculation exercisings in the formal scene. The consequences were discussed and interpreted utilizing Vergnaud ‘s theoretical account and knowledge in pattern theory. The consequences were similar to findings of a figure of re levant empirical research surveies. Deductions and recommendations for instruction were presented along with suggestions for farther research.ContextAccomplishment in schools has been diminishing steadily in many states. In peculiar, the U.S.A and some European states have shown in the last 30 old ages a diminution in school accomplishment in mathematics ( Millroy, 1992 ) . In Lebanon there is a concern about the detrimental effects of exam-driven direction and peculiarly that of mathematical job resolution ( Osta, 1997 ) . Failing every bit good as non being able to cover the disbursals are major causes of dropping out- of school. With no other beginning of support, pupils have to work to back up themselves and their households therefore work in what has been called the â€Å" informal sector of the economic system † . In his book, The Other Path, the Peruvian economic expert, Hernando de Soto, gives a absorbing history of how Peru ‘s informal economic system was created by illiterate provincials who were excluded from take parting in the formal economic system. He describes how the informals responded by making markets to back up themselves with merely limited resources. By forming themselves and voluntarily obeying their ain regulations and norms, they created a subculture that socially and economically outstanding. In most states where the phenomenon of informal economic system prevails, Street peddling is considered as one of the most popular professions that kids pattern. In many developed and developing states, the phenomenon of street peddling or market kids has been broad spreading. In this survey, we are chiefly interested in sing the instance of Lebanon and India. Street Children in India India is the 7th largest state in the universe with the largest population of street kids. They work as porters on coach and railroad Stationss, mechanics in car fix stores, sellers of tea, nutrient or handmade goods, seamsters, ragpickers who pick useable points from refuse. Harmonizing to the Civil Society forum study, it has a big and quickly turning population of 1.027 billion of which 40 % are under 18 ( 1/3 of the entire population are under age15 ) . In 2001, the rate of urbanisation was 28.77 % . The accelerated gait of industrialisation and urbanisation in the state has disrupted the household life and has compelled tribal and rural people to migrate to large metropoliss. Migration from rural to urban countries ( in hunt of employment ) has resulted in the rapid growing of the urban population and about 29 % of the entire population lives in urban countries. There are some negative effects of the urban roar. One of the negative effects is the being of a big proportion of the urban hapless life in slums and jhopad-patties or thatched huts ( Phillips, 1994 ) . An norm of 50 % of the urban population lives in conditions of utmost want – compounded by deficiency of entree to basic services, legal lodging and hapless urban administration. In add-on, Agrawal ( 1999 ) found that about 90 per centum of the employment in the state is in unorganised and informal sectors. Literacy degrees are still low. Handiness and installations for instruction and societal substructure is instead unequal to run into the demands of a turning population. â€Å" Even now 2.6 per centum of the kids in the urban countries and 3.5 per centum in rural countries have ne'er attended school † ( Agrawal, 1999, p.24 ) . As the consequence, the figure of street kids in India is swelling. Harmonizing to UNICEF ‘s appraisal, there are about 11 million street kids in India ( 1994 ) . These figures are considered to be conservative. An estimated 100,000-125,000 street kids live in Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi, with 45,000 in Bangalore. Harmonizing to old surveies about street kids in India, bulk of the street kids who are of school-going age and even over school-going-age are kids who have ne'er been to schools. The increasing figure of street kids may hold an impact on India ‘s economic system. Arbind Singh, coordinator, National Alliance of Street Vendors of India, outlined the part of street sellers to the local economic system. Street Children in Lebanon After World War II and the creative activity of Israel province in 1948, 1000s of Palestinian refugees entered Lebanon, many settling in Beirut. Seventeen refugee cantonments are spread all over Lebanon, the most dumbly populated are those found in Beirut. In 1964 and late in 1994, the Lebanese authorities has passed two edicts which outlined the conditions of work for aliens populating in Lebanon. As alien refugees, the Palestinians are barred from working in over 70 professions. This deficiency of employment chance for the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon has created a annihilating economic status. ( O §U„U‚O §U† U?U†  O §U„U„O?U† O §U† US ) In 1978, and after the Israeli business to Southern Lebanon, many Lebanese fled to the capital Beirut and settled following to the Palestinian refugee cantonments. Through out the refugees ‘ cantonments, more than 60 % of both Lebanese and Palestinians live below the poorness line. Children suffer greatly- born into cantonments as refugees, they have lived no other manner. In many instances, neither have their parents. Life without equal schools, wellness attention, nutrition or shelter becomes the norm. Palestinian arabs can non fall in any professional associations- relegated to the unskilled and informal labor markets, they compete with 50,000 Egyptian and one million Syrian. In add-on to employment and belongings limitations, authorities bars them from inscribing their kids in Public schools. ) United Nations Human Rights System, 2002 ) For some clip, pedagogues who have studied school accomplishment in rural and urban communities have recognized that kids do good in their day-to-day life and so turn as successful citizens, in malice of their hapless public presentation in school mathematics ( D'ambrosio, 1992 ) . For illustration, Saxe ( 1988 ) showed that Brazilian confect Sellerss with small or no schooling, can develop in the merchandising experience arithmetic patterns that differ from the arithmetic taught in schools and that are associated with a high success rate. Increasingly, pedagogues have found the cultural milieus of kids to be a factor impacting their accomplishment in school mathematics ( Dawe, 1988 ) , supplying support to the hypothesis that cognitive power, larning capablenesss, and attitudes towards larning are closely related to cultural background ( D'ambrosio, 1992 ) to which Millroy ( 1992 ) , adds a socio-political dimension that may make larning barriers impacting peculiarly kids from disad vantaged groups. Outside the school environment, the public presentation of low-achieving kids and grownups in schools is frequently successful. Both kids and grownups perform â€Å" mathematically † good in their out-of-school environment: numeration, measurement, work outing jobs and pulling decisions utilizing techniques of explicating, understanding and get bying with their environment that they have learned in their cultural scene ( D'ambrosio, 1992 ) . These patterns have been generated or learned by their ascendants, transmitted through coevalss, modified through a procedure of cultural kineticss and learned in a more insouciant and less formal manner than school mathematics. It is the ancestral cognition of the groups. It is the â€Å" ethnomathematics † . ( D'ambrosio, 1992 ) Ethnomathematics develops largely when there is a disagreement between people ‘s demand for job resolution and the sum of mathematics they have learned in school i.e. when people become involved in undertakings necessitating job work outing accomplishments that are non learned in school ( Nunes, Schliemann & A ; Carraher, 1993 ) . It has been suggested that there are informal ways of making arithmetic computations that have small to make with the processs taught in school ( Carraher & A ; Carraher, 1985 ) . Besides surveies have documented differences across groups as a map of their degree of schooling. However, it is rather possible that the same differences between â€Å" street † and school arithmetic could be within persons. In other words, it might be the instance that the same individual could work out jobs sometimes in formal, and at other times, in informal ways. This seems peculiarly likely with kids who frequently have to make mathematical computations outside school that may be beyond the degree of their cognition of school algorithms. It seems rather possible that these kids might hold trouble with modus operandis learned at school and yet at the same clip are able to work out, by more effectual ways, the jobs for which these modus operandis were devised. One manner to research this thought is to look at kids who have to do frequent and rather complex computations outside school. The kids who sell things in street markets in Beirut organize one such group.PurposesWhile the short term purpose of the present instance survey is to look into the utilizations of math by a sample of immature schooled sellers in the streets of Beirut who use math in their occupations, its long term purpose is to be transferred and replicated in India. Specifically, the intent of this survey is to: 1. Describe the job work outing behavior of a sample of 10 immature street sellers in informal and formal scenes in Beirut. 2. Compare qualitatively the job work outing behavior of the sample in informal and formal scenes in Beirut.RationaleOur purpose is to analyze the mathematical patterns and schemes that develop out of street sellers day-to-day activities, to admit their strengths and to see their failings, as chances to negociate broader apprehensions of what counts a mathematics. Millroy ( 1992 ) has stated that â€Å" an recognition of these factors [ the societal, cultural and political facets of math ] would promote a broader conceptualisation of math and may get down a procedure whereby math could be seen as an active experience, accessible to all people † . ( p.50 ) Second, the consequences of this survey may lend to the turning organic structure of research in â€Å" mundane knowledge † or â€Å" knowledge in pattern † by analyzing the job work outing behaviour of the same group in two distinguishable scenes. Very few surveies investigated the ways in which the arithmetic cognition is learned outside school. In analyzing the arithmetic of Liberian seamsters, Lave ( 1988 ) proposed that there were two qualitatively different manners of making arithmetic. The untaught seamsters used a â€Å" use of measures † attack, an unwritten context-based manner of working with Numberss in contrast to the â€Å" use of symbols † attack employed by their schooled counter parts. It is possible that such different manners of making arithmetic may be found within the same persons particularly if they use math in every twenty-four hours work scenes ( Nunes et al. , 1993 ) . If so, it may be utile to depict and compare the utilizations of math by the same group in the context-based ( informal ) and school-based ( formal ) scenes. Third, the comparing of informal and formal processs in arithmetic, that is the manner people manipulate Numberss in work outing add-on, minus, generation and division jobs is a natural starting point for research for several grounds. D'ambrosio ( 1992 ) claims that arithmetic is a really simple facet of math. Another ground is that concluding about Numberss is portion of mundane experience every bit good as portion of the formal subject of math ( Nunes et al. , 1993 ) . On the other manus, Lave et Al. ( 1990 ) province that one of the several grounds for concentrating on arithmetic was that â€Å" arithmetic activity has formal belongingss which make it identifiable in the flow of experience in many different state of affairss † ( cited in Millroy, 1992, p.6 ) and Lave ( 1988 ) states that â€Å" it ( arithmetic ) has a extremely structured and incorrigible vocabulary, easy recognizable in the class of on-going activity † . ( p.5 )Significance FOR EducationThe present survey is important for three chief grounds. First, it represents the first effort in Lebanon to analyse the mathematical job work outing behavior of kids outside the confines of the schoolroom utilizing a qualitative attack. Second, it surveies the public presentation of schooled kids across two different contexts. Third, it contributes to the turning organic structure of research on larning in footings of â€Å" Apprenticeship † theoretical account of direction. Through garnering grounds that could be seen as a challenge to the conventional definition of math, mathematical activity can be seen as interlacing with mundane pattern outside the academic formal scenes. This, in bend, could open new positions for farther research into other theoretical accounts of learning and larning since â€Å" for old ages, math pedagogues and research workers in math instruction have focused on the schoolroom as the primary scene in which math acquisition takes topographic point † ( N unes et al, 1993, p. 557 ) . Another part from this work concerns instructors. The elaborate description and comparing of job work outing behavior of schooled sellers in work and school scenes may supply penetrations for instructors into their pupils ‘ degree of mathematical apprehension. By making chances for pupils ‘ job work outing activities in practical contexts, instructors might bring forth quandary to excite pupils ‘ innovation, find, and understanding in forms of activity. For, job work outing that relies to a great extent on the acquisition of regulations can be frequently â€Å" plagued † with bugged ( consistent mistake ) algorithms. If pupils can come to understand the regulations through conceive ofing situational contexts, they may be able to beef up their apprehension of these regulations. A farther practical value of this survey is the proposal it offers to curriculum developers on how to show mathematical constructs. In a school context, a mathematical construct is normally described and explained by raising the criterion algorithm for its computation. The analysis of the job work outing behaviors of sellers in work contexts may supply course of study developers with alternate and more effectual ways of showing mathematical constructs.LITERATURE REVIEWA good trade of involvement has been generated late by grounds that untaught individuals solve mundane math jobs successfully utilizing invented schemes and that many schooled individuals work out every twenty-four hours math jobs utilizing schemes different from those learned in school ( Carraher et al. , 1985 ; Saxe, 1991 ) . For many old ages, math instruction research workers have questioned the math that is generated and used outside of establishments of acquisition ( Millroy, 1992 ) . This is the math that allows untaught and sometimes illiterate people to pattern trades and trades, behavior concern minutess and do their lifes in a assortment of ways. This mathematical activity has been called â€Å" informal † math ( Ginsburg, 1988 ) or â€Å" mundane † math ( Lave, 1988 ) or â€Å" ethnomath † ( D'ambrosio, 1992 ) , or even â€Å" street † math ( Nunes et al. , 1993 ) . Several parts to the literature on informal math can be grouped into two categories of surveies: ( a ) work that aims at depicting informal math used in Western civilizations and ( B ) work that aims at depicting non-Western autochthonal signifiers of math bing in civilizations, where no systematic transmittal in school prevails ( Nunes et al. , 1993 ) . A good part of the work on informal math in Western civilizations focal points on immature kids and simple arithmetic. Several of import parts to our cognition of simple arithmetic in preschool old ages were made by Ginsburg ( 1988 ) who demonstrates that when kids learn a numeration system and understand it good, they can so contrive ways of utilizing it to work out arithmetic jobs through numeration and decomposition. A 2nd group of surveies on informal math in Western civilizations focal points on math used outside school by grownups, non by kids. This line of probe has shown that it is one thing to larn formal math in school and rather another to work out math jobs intertwined in mundane activities â€Å" Whether it is inventory taking at work or shopping or ciphering Calories in cookery, school math does non play a really of import function † ( Nunes et al. , 1993, p. 3 ) . Hence, the thought prevails that informal math has its ain signifiers that are versions to the ends and conditions of the activities. On the other manus, work on non-Western math showed that several groups of people who learn numeracy without schooling, use their autochthonal numbering systems to work out arithmetic jobs through numeration, decomposition, and reorganizing ( Gay & A ; Cole, 1967 ; Ginsburg, 1988 ) . For illustration, Gay and Cole ( 1967 ) study that the Kpelle people of Liberia used rocks as support in work outing arithmetic jobs and could work out add-on and minus jobs utilizing Numberss up to 30 or 40 with truth. Beyond that, their method became boring, and people tended to think the figure instead than give an exact reply. Several surveies ( Carraher et al. , 1985 ; Ginsburg, 1988 ) seem to bespeak that school-learned algorithms may non be people ‘s preferred ways for work outing numerical jobs outside the schoolroom. This observation seems to be true of kids with changing grades of schooling ( Carraher et al. , 1985 ) , grownups with an simple and secondary instruction and kids up to fifth class in both the United States and the Ivory Coast ( Ginsburg, 1988 ) . Carraher et Al. ( 1985 ) have suggested that the state of affairs in which arithmetic jobs are solved may hold an of import function in arousing different types of schemes ; school state of affairss tend to arouse school-taught processs, and out-of-school state of affairss are more likely to give rise to informal processs. In their survey, five kids, aged 9 to 15 old ages and with assorted degrees of schooling ( first to eight class ) , were asked to work out arithmetic jobs in the class of their work as market or street-vendors and in a school-like scene. Their public presentation in the natural state of affairs was significantly better than their public presentation in the school-like scene. Furthermore, their attacks to job work outing varied across state of affairss ; school-like jobs were more likely to be solved through resort to the school algorithms whereas the natural state of affairs gave rise to a assortment of informal processs that were extremely improbable to hold been learned at school. These consequences have motivated farther probe of the consequence of the state of affairs on the problem-solving processs since many differences exist between the scenes under consideration. Several possible accounts for the differences in public presentation observed in the informal and formal trials were suggested. In peculiar, Nunes et Al. ( 1993 ) present two types of theory that could explicate these consequences. One emphasizing the social-interaction facets of the state of affairs and a 2nd emphasizing the social-cognitive facets. Informal math has frequently been treated in the literature as â€Å" lesser † math affecting â€Å" idiosyncratic, intuitive, child-like processs, techniques that did non let for generalisation and should therefore be eliminated in the schoolroom through carefully designed direction. † ( Nunes et al. , 1993, p.19 ) . However, there are many calls that legitimize the signifiers of cognition associated with out-of-school patterns.MethodologyPopulation and SampleThe population of this instance survey consists of immature schooled sellers in two unfastened markets in Beirut who had at least three old ages of schooling and three months of peddling experience. The method used for choosing the sample is purposive sampling. The ground for taking this method was merely because peculiar sellers, whose features were known and dictated by the survey before trying, were intentionally chosen in order to fit and ease the survey. Ten sellers were purposively chosen from two market scenes in Beirut, viz. : Haret Hreik and Sabra. Sellers in the sample varied in old ages of schooling ( three to seven old ages ) , in age ( 10 to 16 old ages ) , and peddling experience ( one to eight old ages ) . Four of the sellers worked entirely while the other six helped their male parents or neighbours. Merely three were wholly responsible for buying the green goods at sweeping market and pricing it for selling. Since competition was normally high in these unfastened markets, the sellers would invariably be obliged to revise and alter their merchandising monetary values out of the blue even during the same twenty-four hours. Of the 10 topics, six had complete freedom in altering the monetary values of the green goods they were selling, while invariably revising their net income and loss. Sellers devoted long clip for their work: Seven topics worked from six to seven yearss per hebdomad with a mean of 10 hours per twenty-four hours ; whereas, the other three topics, still go toing school, worked after school and during holidaies. Failure was the basic ground for topics dropping out from school. Seven topics were out-of-school during the clip of the survey, six had dropped school because they merely had failed and repeated categories and merely one had to discontinue and work to back up his household. During the class of their day-to-day work, the topics were involved in minutess that required them to mentally work out a big figure of mathematical jobs without the usage of reckoners or even paper and pencil.DesignAn ethnographic instance survey attack was adopted as the chief methodological analysis. The delimited unit being the job work outing behaviour of immature street sellers in two unfastened markets: Sabra and Haret Hreik. These two markets are located in comparatively dumbly populated vicinities in Beirut. The two countries attract a big figure of migratory workers who live at the nearby cantonments. These workers come from a low socio-economic background where household members, including kids, usually work to back up the household. Both are unfastened markets for selling fruits and veggies in fixed booths whose roofs are fundamentally covered with corrugated sheets of Fe, weighted with blocks of rocks and held by thin wooden and Fe supports. The architecture of this roof helps to shadow and protect the sellers and their green goods from rain and direct sunshine. Inside the markets, sellers have wooden tabular arraies, each at his ain topographic point, on which fruits and veggies are exhibited. Other sellers who stand on the boundary lines of the market have their ain p assenger cars, each shaded by an umbrella. Photographs of the sellers and the two markets are provided and are used as informations beginnings ( Merriam, 1998 ) . ( See Appendix A ) . A mix of qualitative and quantitative methods is undertaken. The general methodological attack in the informal scene was to carry on realistic observation of the topics at work in both markets and to observe their job work outing behaviour on the arithmetic undertakings encountered during their day-to-day pattern as sellers. In the formal scene, a formal trial was administered and the job work outing behaviour of topics was studied from worksheets and transcribed audio-taped interviews.DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUESIn an effort to beef up dependability of findings ( Merriam, 1998, Yin, 2003 ) , informations was triangulated utilizing four methods of roll uping grounds from multiple beginnings: participant observation, interviewing, analysis of paperss, and Collecting artefacts.Participant ObservationTo acquire a instead emic position on the phenomenon of street peddling, the research worker posed as client asked inquiries on the monetary values of fruits and veggies for a purchase or a p ossible purchase. During observations, interactions with the sellers every bit good as sellers ‘ interactions with other clients were recorded.Interviewing and TestingInterviews ranged from informal conversations, to semi-structured, to formal-structured interviews which were preceded by a formal trial. Informal conversation. These conversations took topographic point the first two hebdomads of the survey. They consisted, basically, of general and open-ended inquiries that would do the capable start speaking about his life. The 2nd type involved instead specific inquiries, a book of which is provided in Appendix B. The chief intent of these conversations was to acquire to cognize the topics better, to obtain information about their age, degree of schooling, nationality, and residence. Semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured interviews were administered in Arabic, the native linguistic communication of the topics and the verbal responses were taped-recorded along with topics ‘ accounts of the processs used for obtaining the reply. A book of the semi-structured interviews is provided in Appendix C. It is deserving adverting here that though inquiries posed in these interviews were comparatively formulated following a general guideline, they were besides generated in the natural scene and were non identified prior to questioning. Formal trial. Upon transcribing informations from the semi-structured interviews, conversations with the topics were separated from minutess. The points of the formal trial were therefore extracted from the minutess executed by topics in an effort to accomplish a sell or a possible sell. In this manner, each operation performed by a topic in the semi-structured interviews was chosen as an point to be included in the formal trial taken by that topic. Problems were presented as either calculation exercises or as word jobs. After transforming the minutess into mathematical operations exercisings, points were chosen indiscriminately for each topic to be presented as word jobs. Problems involved different contexts such as minutess with different currencies, $ and L.L, measurings and weights. A book for word jobs is provided in Appendix E. The formal trial was administered a twosome of hebdomads after the semi-structured interviews, formal-structured interviews were scheduled. The formal trial took topographic point in the market or at the topics ‘ places. It is formal in the sense that it took topographic point in a formal, school-like scene where topics were given documents and pencils and were asked to execute a school-like undertaking while sitting at a tabular array. Formal-structured interviews. Upon completion of every trial point in the formal trial, each topic was interviewed and unwritten accounts of the processs used in job work outing were taped.Roll uping artefactsThis method involved roll uping anything a community makes and uses which reflects their experiences and patterns. The artefacts gathered consisted of exposures of topics at work visualizing the manner these topics exhibited their merchandises and the weights and graduated tables used, in order to demo the natural state of affairs that provided intending for their job work outing behaviour. Besides, specimen of documents on which topics wrote their computations was collected. ( See Appendix D )Analysis of paperssStatistical national and international records from international organisations ( UNICEF and UN ) every bit good as official and legal paperss from the Lebanese authorities were examined.AnalysisData consisting of descriptive and brooding field notes, transcribed taped i nterviews every bit good as job solutions were read and reread several times. The chief intent for scanning the information was to guarantee its completeness and to enter important observations that helped in establishing the analysis procedure. Careful scanning of the informations resulted in sketching a general and preliminary model for screening these informations. This categorization was chiefly based on the computations carried out by topics in discernible manners in both scenes during job work outing and their accounts for responses. As an initial measure in the procedure of analysis, Eisenhart ( 1988 ) emphasized the constitution of â€Å" meaningful † units of analysis harmonizing to which ascertained phenomena were divided and forms and regularities evolved in the sellers ‘ job work outing behaviour. Similarities and differences between forms of behaviour were delineated and finally major classs emerged stressing wide lineations of sellers ‘ job work outing behaviour. Relevant balls of informations were assembled to suit these classs and extra classs were formed to include â€Å" negative † cases which did non suit the general model. Finally, by comparing and fiting these classs and subcategories and mentioning to field notes, â€Å" consistent integral strategies † for sorting and categorising job work outing behaviour of sellers in both scenes, started to emerge. At this point, informations were categorized and consequences were produced.SUMMARY OF RESULTSUpon analysing the j ob work outing behaviour of street sellers in formal and informal scenes, three major findings emerged. First, when work outing the three types of jobs: jobs in the informal work scene ; calculation exercises ; and word jobs, three heuristics, three computational schemes, and eleven computational substrategies were used by the sellers. These heuristics, computational schemes and substrategies involved a combination of standard school-taught algorithms and nonstandard processs invented by the sellers. Sellers in the informal scene solved proportion jobs through building-up heuristic which constituted 66 % of the heuristics employed and was associated with a high success rate viz. 92 % . Besides, sellers attempted add-on, generation, and minus jobs utilizing informal, intuitive computational schemes, the most frequent of which was decomposition which represented 62 % of the computational schemes employed and which elicited high per centum of right responses, viz. 89 % . Second, sellers in the formal scene used formal computational schemes ( combination of traditional and idiosyncratic algorithms ) for work outing calculation exercisings that were different from the informal computational schemes used for work outing word jobs. For 81 % of sellers ‘ computational schemes when work outing calculation exercisings were formal whereas 78 % of the computational schemes used for work outing word jobs were informal. Informal computational schemes were associated with a high success rate on both types of jobs ; 85 % for calculation exercisings and 82 % when work outing word jobs. However, utilizing formal computational schemes, this success rate decreased well when work outing calculation exercisings ( 46 % ) and increased when work outing word jobs ( 91 % ) . Third, sellers employed computational schemes in the informal scene that were indistinguishable to those used when work outing word jobs but were qualitatively different from the computational sc hemes used for work outing calculation exercisings. For, the informal, intuitive computational schemes were entirely used by the sellers in the informal scene and represented 78 % of the computational schemes in word jobs, whereas 81 % of sellers computational schemes when work outing calculation exercisings were formal ( combination of traditional and idiosyncratic algorithms ) . Besides, informal, intuitive computational schemes were associated with a high success rate across scenes whereas the formal computational schemes elicited high success rate, 91 % , merely on word jobs. One of the deductions drawn was that applied jobs were much easier and meaningful than pure calculation exercisings. Besides, the presence of existent objects could non by any ground cut down the complexness of the mathematical jobs posed and therefore lend to this comparative success in the market, since public presentation on word jobs was well high.INTERPRETATION OF RESULTSTheoretical models that were pr oposed by cognitive developmental theoreticians, specifically the plants of Vygotsky and Piaget, may, to a big extent, explicate within and across single differences in public presentation in the informal and formal scenes. Vergnaud ( 1988 ) has developed a theoretical theoretical account of constructs which may explicate the usage of heuristics every bit good as differences in computational schemes within and across groups and scenes. Vergnaud ‘s theoretical account is based upon the thought that concepts ever affect three facets: invariants, representations, and state of affairss. A possible reading for this difference in computational schemes use could be the differential impact of the state of affairss that elicited such computational schemes. The informal computational schemes that were employed in meaningful peddling state of affairss required apprehension and their usage by the topics developed understanding. It was an apprehension of Numberss and figure system develope d within a larger context, a context of meaningful and sensible relationships. But the formal schemes were instead more symbolic, restricted merely to meaningless representations that messed up the topics ‘ public presentation and led to uncertainness and confusion.IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONThe most of import deduction that can be extracted from this survey is the new construct about what counts as math in general and arithmetic in peculiar. Math is intuitive, realistic, subjective, and can be used as a tool for carry throughing purposive activities. In this regard, the consequences of this survey confirm the position that math, specifically arithmetic, is non an abstract organic structure of regulations but instead can be invented by the people.Deductions for TeachingThis survey has provided grounds that kids can contrive job work outing schemes for work outing add-on, minus, generation, and simple proportion jobs which may non hold been taught to them in school. Teachers cou ld ease more meaningful acquisition by set uping links between kids ‘s intuitive schemes and the traditional algorithms. Besides, Students can outdo larn a construct when they have experienced for themselves manifestations of that construct. A 3rd deduction for instruction is the fact that pupils ‘ mistakes can be valuable portion of the acquisition procedure because they can supply information about pupils ‘ apprehensionsDeduction for Curriculum DevelopersOne direct deduction of this survey to curriculum development is the designing of course of study around primary constructs and showing it in a whole-part attack as suggested by constructivists ( Brooks & A ; Brooks, 1993 ) . The sellers ‘ informal computational schemes were holistic in that they dealt with complete Numberss instead than single figures and they worked from left to compensate, continuing the significance and topographic point value of Numberss. Showing mathematical content and structuring jo bs around â€Å" large † thoughts can supply chances for pupils every bit good as instructors to get constituent accomplishments, gather more information, and therefore construct mathematical constructs for, â€Å" with course of study activities clustered around wide constructs, pupils can choose their ain unique job work outing attacks and utilize them as spring boards for the building of new apprehensions † ( Brooks & A ; Brooks, 1993, p.47 ) . The consequences of this survey have generated a figure of inquiries that are deserving sing for farther research. Possibly, the most important inquiry is the manner in which school larning interacts with the sorts of understandings kids generate through their engagement in every twenty-four hours cultural patterns. Despite the importance of this inquiry, we have small empirical research in this country. Besides, depicting and comparing the job work outing behaviour of sellers in informal and formal scenes have triggered the digesting inquiries about what a mathematical construct is and what it means to work out a job in nonacademic scenes. It may be interesting to retroflex this survey on different mathematical constructs and with a different group of learners and to compare the job work outing behaviours across contexts. Further research in support of the thought of people ‘s practical theorems, or Vergnaud ‘s theorems-in-action should be conducted. We likely need to develop adept ways for depicting different kinds of inexplicit cognition and find the range of intuitive job work outing behaviour.POSSIBILITIES FOR REPLICATION IN INDIAWhile our chief focal point in this instance survey was to analyze the job work outing behavior of street kids in Beirut, we are interested in widening it to India. However, we are cognizant of certain challenges including those pertinent to linguistic communication as different linguistic communications are spoken by kids in assorted metropoliss in India. Besides, the gender function differences will be present. Girls are required to get married early and boys remain on the streets longer. Beging by households is common excessively. The Torahs do non allow kids to set up little boxes to sell their wares so they run when they see police coming. There is a surc harge to be paid to the authorities to put up little booths to sell their wares. Besides, there are specific countries that these kids can sell their goods. Most times they are selling and puting up their boxes where it is illegal to make so. So, as a research worker you may hold to wait yearss for your capable to return from gaol etc.Appendix AA participant deliberation The architecture of Sabra ‘s market Selling and interchanging money Negociating the monetary valueAppendix BScript of Informal ConversationsAdapted from Millroy ( 1992 )A. General, open-ended inquiries to do the topic talk about his life. B. More specific inquiries 1. What is your name? 2. How old are you? 3. Where are you from? 4. At which category have you dropped school? 5. How many old ages have you studied? 6. Where do you populate? 7. How old were you when you dropped school? 8. Why did you drop school? 9. For how many old ages have you been working in the market? 10. At what clip do you come to the market and when do you go forth? 11. How many are you at place? 12. Make your male parent work? 13.Have you taken add-on, minus, and generation at school? 14.Do you know how to calculate? Do you utilize paper and pencil or a reckoner? 15. What do you sell? 16. Make you sell entirely or person helps you? 17. Make you do sweeping purchases? 18. Who makes the pricing on the green goods? 19. Can you alter the monetary values, make price reductions or increase the monetary value? 20. Make you calculate net income and loss? 21. Can you give a alteration to a dollar measure? 22. Make you utilize the things you have learned in school while working in the market? 23. Make you like working in the market? 24. Make you wish your brothers to work in the market? 25. Is it profitable to work in the market? 26. When have a job do you inquire for aid from anybody? 27. Make you see traveling back to school? 28. What does it take to be a good seller?Appendix CScript for semi-structured interviewsQuestions posed were drawn from the topics ‘ natural scene, from the type of minutess used and the inquiries they may confront in their work. 1. I am traveling to take X kg of this green goods. How much is that? How do you cognize? 2. I will take X kilos. I am traveling to give you z L.L measure, what do I acquire back? How did you acquire it? 3.You are selling X kg for y L.L but I want z kg, how much do I have to wage? Why? 4.I privation to purchase X kg of this and y kg of that. How much do I have to pay? How? 5. I have X L.L. I want to take Ys kilos from this green goods, how much will I hold left? How did you happen out? I have X L.L How many kilos can I purchase with it from this green goods? How did you cognize? 7. You are selling X kg of this green goods for Y L.L, but I merely want one kg. How much does one kg cost? How did you acquire the reply? 8. Have you changed your monetary values today? By how much? Why? 9. I want Ten kg from this green goods. I will pay you with a y $ measure. How much is the alteration in $ ? In L.L? How? 10. Can you gauge how much the leftovers from this green goods weigh? How? 11. From the leftovers can you perchance think how much have you sold? How make you cognize? 12. How much have you sold today? Can you find your net income? How?Appendix DDocuments on which the sellers wrote their solutions of arithmetic jobs

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Francisco Goya and the Second of May, 1808 Essay

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What Holes Has The Financial Crisis Revealed In The G8 Will The G20 Fill Such Holes - Essay Example World’s wealthiest country; America was the major sufferer of this crisis. In fact many people believe that America was responsible for stimulating recent global recession. The unhealthy lending habits of American banks and the crazy life styles of American public have given momentum to the recent financial crisis. G8 and G20 are two of the major coalitions in the world at present. G20 was proposed by former Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin in 1999 to deal with international financial matters. Sustainable development is the major theme of G20. It is also interested in solving global energy crisis, economic problems, demographic problems etc. Australia, Canada, Saudi Arabia, United States, India, Russia, South Africa, Turkey, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom, China, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea and European Union are the members of G20. On the other hand the Group of seven (G-7) comprises Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom and United states. â€Å"The G7 is often referred to as G8 because Russia fully participated in all but financial and certain economic discussions of G7 since the 1998 Birmingham summit†. Before the formation of G7, G6 was formed in 1974 by world's major industrialized democracies such as United States, the United Kingdom, Italy, West Germany, Japan and France. In 1975 Canada joined G6 and it became G7. Russia joined G7 in 1997 to make it G8. Since, its formation G8 contributed heavily to global economy. Fratianni, et al (2005) pointed out that â€Å"The world without G8 would be more brutish and riskier than it is now† (p.4). The recent financial crisis has unveiled many of the loopholes in G8 functioning whereas G20 stood well to the challenges raised by the recession. It should be noted that G8 consists of mainly European and American countries whereas G20 consists of countries from Asia also. It is often said that global wealth is currently shifting from America a nd Europe to Asia at present. This is evident from the fact that most of the prominent Asian countries escaped from recession problems whereas American and European countries are still struggling for survival. In other words, G8 failed miserably in tackling recession problems whereas G20 managed these problems well, mainly because of the contributions of Asian countries. This paper analyses the loopholes in G8 in tackling recession problems and the ability of G20 in filling that loopholes. What holes has the financial crisis revealed in the G8? Even though G8 countries are believed to be the wealthiest countries in the world, recent financial crisis has unveiled the loopholes in the governance of these countries. According to Fratianni et al. (2007), â€Å"Today, the G8 leaders are dealing directly with central question of how to build better global governance in both public and private sphere† (p.23). As a result of globalization, privatization is taking place at rapid pace in most of the countries. Moreover, governments in G8 countries are privatizing many of the publicly owned companies to stay away from the responsibilities of servicing the people. It is a fact that private capital is essential for the economic growth of a country. However, uncontrolled private capital in critical sectors may bring more harm than good. India like emerging economies is allowing private participation cautiously even though they are following mixed economic policies. On the other hand, China does not allow private capital in critical sectors even though they are doing everything possible to encourage private capital on all other sectors. G8 countries on the other hand allowing private companies to invest at will in all major industrial

Strategic Planning for International Travel Essay - 1

Strategic Planning for International Travel - Essay Example Today, Spain is next to France in terms of number of tourists and is next to USA in terms of value of tourism sales (Travel and tourism in Spain). Another nation which economy got a badly needed shot in the arm and made a spurious revival of its economy, thanks to its beach and sex tour strategy is Thailand. New Zealand, at the moment, is poised to aggressively attract visitors to its pristine mountains, geysers, lakes and its clean environment. Prime Minister Helen Clarke believes that tourism will give New Zealand unprecedented prosperity. For its travel strategy, it intends to use "the national traits of guardianship and hospitality". Clarke dictates that there must be a vision and must have a foundation or underpinning to which everything else is attached (New Zealand tourism strategy 2015, p.1). The UK, still exulting after bagging the privilege of hosting the 2012 Olympic Games and the paralympic games, has realised the importance of fortifying its tourism industry even beyond 2012 and the fact that for it to be successful in this endeavour, it must have a solid travel and tourism strategy, both international and domestic. ... It has refurbished its VisitBritain tourism agency "to promote Britain internationally in 36 markets so as to generate wealth and jobs across Britain" (VisitBritain, the national tourism agency). To do this, it must foster partnership with private entities and provide them with all the support including advice and needed information. UK has also encouraged the GTBS or Green Tourism Business Scheme, which has "over 1400 members" in its efforts to lure tourists to savor "a green holiday" consisting of pristine scenery, pure unadulterated air and water with biodiversity to boot. This, here, is a fine example of public-private partnership to push through tourism success. The 1,400 private members do the funding while the government sets the right environmental climate for tourism success so in the final analysis, their investments will be recouped in the form of glorious profits. It has been established that Scotland is now the leading ecotourism destination in Europe as 92% of these tre kkers ranked scenery as one important factor that made them decide to visit Scotland for their holiday destination. (Green tourism business scheme). As of today, "the UK's flourishing tourism industry generates over 85 billion pounds a year for the British economy. It is one of our biggest employers, directly responsible for 1.4 million jobs, or one in every 20 people in work" (Purnell 2008, p.1). But this statistic is mere pittance compared to those of USA, Spain, France, Thailand, and the rest of them. UK has to catch up, for more prosperity's sake and more employment for its citizenry. It's winning the hosting of the 2012 Olympic Games is one golden opportunity it must harness to make a clean break and put itself at

Relocating a Hamptons Store Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Relocating a Hamptons Store - Essay Example Early Planning The following discussion evaluates the plans that Hamptons on High Street has to moving to an existing building in order to take advantage of a better location with higher visibility and more space for inventory as it is received, stored, and put out onto the floor. This evaluation will provide context for the ways in which construction issues are addressed, providing charts and potentials for the project in an examination of the management of the build. One of the most important parts of creating a project of the size of refitting a building in order to move the Hamptons store to a better location is fully organising the project and planning for unexpected delays in order to best utilize the time that is available so that contingency plans can mitigate risks. Through an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the plan, the project appears to be an advantage to the store and well planned. 1.1 Ghant Chart The following chart provides for the established schedule f rom the week of February 13, the date the building contractor will have access to the building, to the end of the project. The organisation of the build has been determined by information gathered by Tony Peterson is Technical Co-ordinator for Construction Services in the Store Development Group. The problem with the build schedule is that a great deal is riding on the accomplishment of all of the electric and mechanical within the first week of construction, which does not allow much time for issues that may arise that could delay the project (see Figure 1). A better solution would be to overlap some of the processes so that there is time to make sure the build can be accomplished through a more balanced program. Figure 2 shows a revised chart that can provide for some time allowances for issues as they arise. Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Electric    Mechanical    Sprinkler Services    CCTV    Design Features                Ceiling Grid             F looring                Equipment                Doors    Refrigeration    Dressing       Figure 1 Tony’s Estimation of Construction In the revised version, the electric and the mechanical work are given two weeks, the allowance of extra time actually allowing for the probable occasion of problems that might delay the work. Through positioning the CCTV and the Sprinkler Services in the second week, the first week of construction is allowed open for the electric and mechanical, the goal of being prepped for those two installations in the first week providing for appropriate time to anticipate what might go wrong. Equipment and flooring should overlap as some will be placed before the flooring is done, and other would be placed after the flooring is done. In addition, in providing for two additional weeks, design changes as problems arise in relationship to the fact that this is a refit. Although previous planning can avoid most problems, it is likely that some will occur as reworking the existing building progresses. Although the build has been determined through an existing plan this might allow for more risk management where certain more unpredictable concepts are considered. However, budgetary concerns must also be taken into consideration. Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Electric       Mechanical       Sprinkler Services    CCTV    Design Features                Ceiling Grid       Flooring                Equipment                Automatic Doors    Refrigera

Migration into the United States Essay Example for Free

Migration into the United States Essay Migration is synonymous with human movement from one place to another in search for better living conditions. Migration into the United States is not a new concept as the country owes its historical origin to individuals migrating to America from other parts of the world driven by various reasons. Some came searching for land to be used in agricultural production, others came in search for education and employment opportunities, others come in search for freedom, whereas others came running away from adversaries within their countries of origin. These are just but a few of the reasons leading to high rates of immigration to the United States. Being a historical concept, immigration issues have remained part of the unique forces that continue to shape the United States and this trend is far from over. This paper shall in brief, examine the concept of immigration in the United States and evaluate the current trends in regard to the issue. Immigration, a historical Concept: Migration in the United States can be traced back in the 16th century when immigrants from European countries including Britain, France, Netherlands, and Germany came to the Americas. These immigrants were generally referred to as ‘settlers’ looking for farm land to boost the fairly impoverished status. These were the individuals who were unable to cope up with the demands of their modernized economies. During this time, a substantial number of individuals came to the United States as indentured servants (Huspek, p 161). Such individuals could then enter into contracts with their employers in order to gain entry into the â€Å"new world†. The indentured servants had to endure spells of hardships and later given a piece of land which allowed them to work as free yeoman farmers (Huspek, p 163). The immigration trends changed during the 19th century when there was massive movement of people to the United States. Immigration to the United States has continued to increase as time goes by and the government estimates that there are millions of individuals who come to the United States each year. Of these millions, some usually enter the United States as illegal immigrants whereas others follow the legal procedural requirements (Bracey, p 116). Legal immigrants: Legal immigrants are defined in law as those individuals who gain admission to permanently reside in the United States in line with the legal requirements. They are often referred to as ‘green-card holders’. According to the Department of Homeland Security Office of Immigration Statistics (OIS), these are â€Å"aliens who are granted lawful permanent residence (LPR), aliens admitted for lawful permanent residence, immigrants admitted, and admissions† (Batalova, para 6). According to the law, there are three categories of legal immigrants which include family reunion, employment sponsorship, and humanitarian based as the case of refugees and asylum seekers. One can attain the United States citizenship in two ways which includes arriving as new legal permanent residents or by adjusting the previous status upon gaining entrance to the US so as to become a permanent resident. During the year 2008, there were more than 1. 1 million immigrants being admitted to the US. Legal immigrants can also gain access to the US through the green card lottery established by the Immigration Act of 1990 allowing for immigrant entry from those nations with poor rates of immigration to the US (Batalova, para 9). The graph below reflects the number of immigrants that have been coming to the US from the year 1986 to 2008: Immigrants Admitted to the United States (in thousands): Total and by Type, 1986 to 2008 Source: Jeanne Batalova Illegal Immigrants: These are defined as the alien population which is not part of the legal residents of the United States. These are individuals who enter the United States without being inspected or they were temporarily admitted but their period of stay has since expired. The United States is home for an estimated eleven million illegal immigrants which has caused a major concern to the political class and the public policy analysts (LeMay, p 1). There has been a dramatic rise in the number of illegal immigration into the US since the 70s and this has been attributed to the termination of the Bracero Policy in mid 60s. The Bracero Policy was referred to as the guest-worker program that allowed the American companies to employ Mexicans temporarily for nine months every year in order to address the labor shortages during the 1940s. This program ended in 1964 to pave way to the Immigration Act of 1965 (LeMay, p 4). This program set forth the beginning of a trend that has been persistent for years as much of the illegal immigrants are from Mexico or rather uses the Mexican border with the US to gain entry to the United States (Bracey, p 118). Conclusion: Migration is a phenomenon that shall continue to impact on human population everywhere in the world. Though migration might be disastrous to the economy especially if left uncontrolled, it is inhumane to lock out people who would want to exploit their potential elsewhere in a legally defined manner. Every year starting from the 16th century to the present, many individuals have continued to find their way into the United States as immigrants. These individuals comes with a different culture that later becomes assimilated to American way of life creating the diversity that is the major strength of the United States. Immigration is therefore a plausible phenomenon in the United States that is supposed to be guided and encouraged by law as it contributes to making America what it is today. Legal immigration is a welcome move that is destined to continue enriching the American culture making it unique on the international arena. Work Cited: Batalova, Jeanne. Spotlight on Legal Immigration to the United States. 2009. Retrieved on 11th May 2010 from; http://www. migrationinformation. org/Feature/display. cfm? id=730. Bracey, Gerald, W. The Research Impact of Immigration. Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 80. 1999. pp 115-125. Huspek, Michael. Production of State, Capital, and Citizenry: The Case of Operation Gatekeeper. Social Justice, Vol. 28. 2001. pp 160-165 LeMay, Michael, C. Illegal immigration: a reference handbook. 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif. : ABC-CLIO.

Cyber Attacks in Indonesia: Types, Targets, and Preventions

Cyber Attacks in Indonesia: Types, Targets, and Preventions According to Indonesia Security Incident Response Team on Internet and Infrastructure/Coordination Center (Id-SIRTII/CC), there are about 89 million attacks that occurred during the first half of 2014 with the domination by malware attacks as much as 46.3 million attacks.[1] The same research found 6,000 successfully irritated hacker website incidents and found almost 16,000 security holes on the websites in Indonesia. Indonesian Ministry of Defense released that Cyber-attacks are any measures whether done intentionally or unintentionally by any party, which is targeted at electronic systems or their contents (information) and equipment that are highly dependent on technology and networks of any scale, which threatens the countrys sovereignty, territorial integrity, and safety of the nation.[2] Everyone representing the government (State Actor) or Non Govermental Organization (Non-State Actor) is able to carry out the attacks so that the perpetrators can be an individual, group, clas s, organization or even a country. The entire society needs to anticipate threats and cyber attacks that occur. Preparedness and responsiveness in the face of threats to foster the ability to recover the impact of the cyber attack. Cyber attacks can threaten ideology, political, economic, social, cultural, nationalism, military, science, and technology as well as other related aspects of the life of the nation, the state, and society, including personal interests. With the increase of cyber attack today, then people need to know the type of threats, attacks targets and how to overcome them, in order to protect the state and nations assets of effects that can occur in the future. Some of the types of threats that appear in the activities of cyber attack are quite varied. Broadly speaking, cyber threats can be categorized into two major groups, cyber war, and cyber violence. First, Cyber war is all acts carried deliberate and coordinated with the purpose of disrupting the countrys sovereignty. Cyber war may be a terrorist attack (cyber terrorism) and espionage (cyber espionage) that interfere with national security. The cyber attack has a characteristic that is intentional (deliberate), active, and a large scale. Second, Cyber Disorders (Cyber à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Violence), is a cyber attack that has characteristics that unintentional, passive, and small scale. In addition to the threat, the public also needs to consider the target of cyber attacks. Based on the goals and targets, we face cyber attacks directed to individuals, national infrastructure, and national interests. The attacks on individuals, communities, organizations, certain communities are usually aimed to foment unrest, fear, violence, chaos, and conflict. Furthermore, attacks on places of National Critical Infrastructure, which aims to control the system remotely. This activity can weaken the defense or security as well as the nations economy. Another objective is the national interest, on all aspects related to the national objectives, the symbol/symbols of the state, state politics and the interests of the nation. There are several steps to deal with the threats and protect the country from becoming the target of cyber attack. The countermeasures activities of cyber attack use an approach that adjusts to the sources and forms of attack faced. The cyber attack prevention can be carried out as cyber defense, legal actions, and counter-attacks. The first step is cyber defense, an attempt to tackle cyber attack which led to the disruption of normal operation of the state. The second step is legal actions. People can coordinate with relevant security forces if they find or know the perpetrators of cyber crime. The third step is cyber counter-attack, an act of counter-attack against the source of intrusions with the aim of providing a deterrent effect against perpetrators of cyber attacks. By knowing the types of threats, attacks targets and the response to the above, we should be able to have the readiness and responsiveness in the face of cyber attack. Prevention efforts in the form of cyber defense, cyber remedies or counter-attack should be able to cope with all the cyber threat in the category of large or small, individually-targeted, or vital national interests. In the end, we must remember what Admiral Michael Mullen said, The single biggest existential threat thats out there, I think, is cyber.[3] [1] Internet Traffic Data in 2014. ID-SIRTII, 2014. 27 March 2017. http://www.idsirtii.or.id/tahunan/tahun/2014.html [2]Ministry of Defenses Regulation   No 82/2014 : Cyber Defense. Ministry of Defense, 2014. [3] Michael Mullen. BrainyQuote.com. Xplore Inc, 2017. 27 March 2017. https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/quotes/m/michaelmul516777.html

Web-base Quality Management Systems

Web-base Quality Management Systems Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Defining Quality, History and Achieving International Quality Standards Quality is a perceptual, conditional and somewhat subjective attribute and may be understood differently by different people in different spheres of life. It is a degree or grade of excellence or worth, a characteristic property that defines the apparent individual nature of something or totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. In recent years, many organisations have adopted quality management systems to improve the quality of both goods and services through the application of efficient quality management methods and principles (Feigenbaum, 2000). The reason why so many organisations have started on the journey is either because of customer pressure for ISO 9000 certification or because the firms themselves have realised the strategic advantage of having this certificate, i.e. it would give them an edge over their competitors. Most of the firms which started out on the journey to ISO 9000 still may not have completed that journey. In general, it takes 2 years, and obtaining this coveted certificate is only a first step towards the ultimate goal: total quality management (TQM). Reaching this goal may take at least 5 years. In the next sections of the dissertation we will take a closer look at the characteristics of the different quality management systems. In this section, we concentrate on the concept of quality itself. We start with the two types of quality, namely: Objective quality, which is simply the products total number of quality attributes. Subjective quality, which is a result of the consumers experience of the products objective attributes. Subjective quality is thus defined as the degree of fulfillment of consumers expectations (Feigenbaum, 2000). Beyond the customers desirable expectations, there are always the customers latent expectations. Manufacturers and the service providers must therefore find the hidden expectations in order to keep the customer satisfied. It is subjective quality which matters to the company, and it is this definition which Deming used in his renowned eight-day quality seminars for Japanese top managers in 1950. Demings message to them was simple but powerful: The consumer is the most important part of the production line. The idea that customers should be seen as a part of the production line was in itself a revolutionary one at that time. A logical conclusion is that quality production is only possible if it is systematically and continuously based on customer desires and needs. It is simple in theory but difficult in practice because there are many obstacles to overcome along the way. Demings 14 points, which we have taken the liberty of calling stations along the way, are among the most important means of overcoming these obstacles. You may ask this important question: Why have the Japanese been better at understanding Demings message than the Western world? There are many reasons for this, but one of the most intriguing reasons may be found in the Japanese language, and thus in Japanese culture. In the Japanese language, quality management can be translated as quality is equal to the attributes of the things (i.e. what peoples talk about). This interpretation results in the following definition of quality management: Control of the attributes of a product which consumers talk about. To understand why consumers talk about a products attributes, we will delve into motivation theory. Herzberg has divided motivation into two factors: Factors which create satisfaction (satisfiers). Factors which create dissatisfaction (dissatisfiers). Similarly, many objective attributes of a product or service can be categorised. We may talk about the basic attributes that the consumer expects when he/she buys the product. If these are not present in sufficient quantities, the consumer experiences dissatisfaction. If the expected attributes are present, naturally the consumer is satisfied, but the interesting and crucial thing is that the degree of satisfaction will not necessarily be particularly high. The experience will be more or less neutral. Apart from the attributes which the customer expects to find, it is always possible to build attributes into the product or service which the customer does not expect to find, i.e. attributes which will delight or satisfy him/her. The more of these attributes that are present in the product or services, the greater the satisfaction, and this satisfaction will, in many cases, increase significantly. We call these attributes value-added quality. However, in Japan they use the term charming quality, whereas in the US they interpret this as exciting quality. We believe that value-added quality covers both. One example of expected quality in air travel is safety. Korean Air lost its reputation as a quality airline in the wake of the tragic incident of a passenger airline being shot down over Soviet territory. Prior to this incident, Korean Air was rated as one of the top quality airlines in the world. Afterwards, Korean Airs quality ratings dropped significantly. In our view, the only thing which can adequately explain this is that Korean Air had failed to deliver the customers expected quality. As an example of value-added quality, let us consider the added service offered by ISS Laundry Service, a subsidiary of International Service Systems (ISS). This company which, among other activities, changes bed-linen in hotel rooms, suddenly had an idea. As they were there to change the sheets, they might as well see if anything else needed doing, e.g. small repairs, changing light-bulbs, etc., and report this to the hotel management. This unexpected service, which hardly costs ISS anything, created an enormous amount of goodwill for the company among its customers. The understanding behind Demings assertion, that the consumer is the most important aspect of the production line, lies precisely in the subjective definition of quality, which we will be discussing in this dissertation. The introduction of quality management theory towards the end of the 1980s led to the development of a new concept called total quality. This concept was defined as follows (Kanji, 2002): Qualityis to satisfy customers requirements continuously. Total qualityis to achieve quality at low cost. Total quality managementis to obtain total quality by involving everyones daily commitment. These definitions will become clearer as we proceed through the dissertation. The objective of TQM is to improve continuously each and every activity in the company focusing on the customer. Every product has some deficiency, i.e. risks for making customers dissatisfied. These deficiencies must be continually eliminated and, at the same time, the firm must ensure that its product or service always incorporate the quality attributes which satisfy its customers. 1.2 Total quality management The concept of TQM is a logical development of total quality control (TQC), a concept first introduced by A. V. Feigenbaum in 2000 in a book of the same name. Though Feigenbaum had other things in mind with TQC, it only really caught on in engineering circles, and thus never achieved the total acceptance in British companies that was intended. TQC was a hit in Japan, on the other hand, where the first quality circles were set up in 1962, which later developed into what the Japanese themselves call company-wide quality control (CWQC). this is identical to what people in the West today call TQM. One of the main reasons for the failure of TQC in British companies was a management misconception that responsibility for implementing TQC could be delegated to a central quality department. In doing so, management overlooked one of the most important points in TQC, namely managements wholehearted commitment to quality improvements. The aim of the new concept, TQM, is to ensure that history does not repeat itself. Thus, management have been directly included in the definition of the concept, making it impossible for them to avoid their responsibility. To include the word management here sends an unmistakable signal straight into executive offices that this is a job for top management, including the board of directors. TQM will be further discussed in following chapters. Chapter 2 Quality Perspectives The inadequacy of traditional management in UK Japan Traditional British forms of management are based on a philosophy which divides responsibility for decisions into strategic, tactical and operational levels, i.e. the so-called management pyramid. We now know that this management conception is totally inadequate for modern, complex companies, since it does not give the connection between top management and the main processes at the bottom responsible for customer satisfaction. As a result, the management is ignorant of the real problems on the operational level, and do not provide the support and backing that the operation level needs for the creation of customer satisfaction (Feigenbaum, 2000). The decisions which cascade down from top management are often exclusively budgetary in nature, containing instructions which are forced on lower levels without due consideration of their problems. Many local branches of a bank have similar experiences. A typical example of this was noted after some Danish bank mergers took place at the, end of the 1980s. Branch managers of these banks received orders by internal post to cut staff numbers by a certain figure with no indication of how this could be achieved without drastically reducing the quality of products and services offered to their customers. Hiromoto (2002) describes this as management by terrorism. In discussing British and Japanese management philosophy, Konosuke Matsushita, founder of one of the worlds biggest companies, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic, National, Technics, etc.), said: We are going to win and the industrial West is going to lose out: theres nothing much you can do about it, because the reasons for your failure are within yourselves. Your firms are built on the Taylor model; even worse, so are your heads. With your bosses doing the thinking while the workers wield the screwdrivers, youre convinced deep down that this is the right way to run a business. For you, the essence of management is getting the ideas out of the heads of the bosses into the hands of labour. (p). Hoinville (2002) feels that the emphasis of managements commitment has its origin in the system, the reason for quality defects. It has been estimated that 85% of all defects are caused by system errors, i.e. errors which only management has the authority to change. Management must show by its actions that it has understood the message. It must constantly strive to reduce system errors by setting up quality goals, drawing up quality policies and quality plans, and participating actively in the follow-up auditing phase. Finally, management must concede its own lack of knowledge in the quality field and take the lead in acquiring new knowledge. If management does all this, it will have created a firm foundation on which future quality can be built. Conversely, there would be little point in building quality on a shaky foundation. We have already pointed out that the customer is the most important part of the production line. Deming (2002) introduced this idea to top Japanese managers in 1950 by means of a basic outline of an arbitrary production system, or part of a production system. This outline, which must today be considered traditional, shows that both customer and supplier are part of the production system, and that information for improving this comes from two sources: consumer research and process tests. Since this outline also applies to an arbitrary sub-system, it shows that customer and supplier concepts embrace much more than just external customers and suppliers. Internal customers and suppliers, i.e. employees, are at least as important as the external ones. Any person, or process, which forms part of the production system must recognise that it serves a number of internal customers, and the quality of the output delivered to these customers is crucial to the end result, i.e. the quality of the output delivered to the external customer. Deming (2002) himself concedes that, in 1950, this was a formidable challenge for the Japanese top managers, but they accepted the challenge, and the result is there for us all to see today. In Demings words: A new economic age had begun. Today it is difficult to understand that such a simple message presented the Japanese with such a difficult challenge. Our experience of top managers is that they accept the message without question. However, this does not lessen the difficulty of the challenge, because it implies that firms traditional information systems are totally inadequate. A culture must be established to ensure that internal customer research functions just as well as external. Here, it is important to point out that internal analysis is based on entirely different principles from external analysis. Communication and team-building are the key words here. Obviously, the participation of top management is necessary in building up this culture. It can be seen that the Focus on the customer and the employee is much more comprehensive than just the focus on the customer, which is the norm in service management. The latter refers solely to external customers. The former, while including these, also stresses the internal customer/supplier relationship. This relationship is one of the most important innovations which TQM has introduced. Quality Management In Todays Era As we have discussed above that how the management of quality is vital to the output product of any organization it has made clear that without an excellent quality management system an organization can not implement total quality management. In todays era new ways of quality management have been introduced that can make quality management a much easier and effective job for the management body. Technology has been quiet advance in todays world and every organization is trying to get its hand on the most advance technology that can take it to a much higher level from its competitiors. A new emerging technology for managing quality in well established organizations is the use of Web-Based Quality Management Systems. Why this technology is vital today is beacuse of organizations expanding their businesses worldwide or operating at different geoghraphical locations. It is much easier to manage the quality in an organization that is operating at one location but if it has its operations going on at different locations it is much harder to implement and manage total quality management. But these new systems have overcome this gap by providing a centralized hub to manage the quality. No matter how scattered the operations of the organizations are and how many stake holders are involved, by implementing these systems organizations need not to worry about the distance and communication gap. Competition and cost consciousness on the one side an increasing demand for quality and reliability on the other side are contrary requirements in present production engineering. This must be considered also from the point of view of the international standards about quality management and quality assurance. The origins of quality management and quality assurance in a modern sense began in manufacturing organizations at about the beginning of the twentieth century [1], and many of the tools for quality analysis and improvement were developed for manufacturing problems. Through the 1980s, this manufacturing emphasis dominated the profession. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s, business began to recognise the importance of quality service in achieving customer satisfaction and competing in the global marketplace. In the late 1990s also the public domain and governmental departments became aware of the general importance of quality issues. In a very important sense, this recognition has expanded the definition and  concept of quality to include nearly any organisational improvement such as the reduction of manufacturing cycle time and improved worker skills. And also the public sector is now starting to take care of quality management within its structures. In addition to industrial organisations and the manufacturing industry also service organisations build up quality systems. Ancillary services in manufacturing companies as well as stand-alone service organisations such as hospitals and banks are beginning to realise the benefits of a focus on quality. A number of different industries are successively doing business around the globe and the quality systems that are availaible in the market does not mostly cater a specific industry and all of them provide different features, tools and options, so it is a complex decision to choose the best availaible solution from a wide range of variety. In this dissertation different availaible web-based quality management systems are reviewed and their shortnesses are pointed out and a model is proposed in the end that covers all gaps in the currently availaible systems. Chapter 2: Literature Review In this chapter literature review is carried out and analyzed that which tools and schemes are imperative for the management of quality and how they cooperate in the quality management. This will enable to know how different branches of an organization can be indulged with quality by using what sort of tools and how these tools can benifit any organization. â€Å"The approach to quality most extensively adopted by Western companies in recent years has been the application of national and international (ISO 9000 or equivalent) quality management standards. This approach is following firmly along the quality assurance path. It is more proactive than reliance on detection/inspection and allows for the use of quality tools primarily to stop non-conforming products being produced or non-conforming services being delivered in the first place. Hence there is a switch implied from detection to prevention via quality systems, procedures and a quality manual.† [18] 2.1 Quality Management Tools Techniques Numerous definitions and methodologies have been created to assist in managing the quality-affecting aspects of business operations. Many different techniques and concepts have evolved to improve product or service quality. Tools and techniques like charts, graphs, histograms and complex tools like Statistical Process Control, Quality Function Deployment, Failure Mode and Effect Analysis and Design of Experiments have been used for quality management for a number of years. All of these tools are very effective for quality evaluation and implementation when applied rightly and at correct situation. Juan Jose Tari and Vicente Sabater {Quality management tools} in their research on â€Å"Quality tools and Techniques† has outlined few important tools and techniques that can be luminously helping in managing and increasing organizations quality standards. The very basic tools, the management tools for quality and techniques for quality management are outlined in the table below: Basic Quality Management Tools Management Tools Techniques Cause Effect Diagram Affinity Diagram Benchmarking Check Sheet Arrow Diagram Design of Experiments Control chart Matrix Diagram FMEA Graphs Matrix Data Analysis Fault Tree Analysis Histoghram Process Decision Poka Yoke Pareto Diagram Program Chart Quality Costing Scatter Diagram Relations Diagram QFD Statistical Process Control Table 1 Quality Management Tools and Techniques Each indivisual tool has its own speciality and benifits the organization in its own manner. The implementation and benifits of few of these tools are discussed in the next section. 2.2 Quality Control, Assurance and Improvement The scholars of quality assume that the computer is only the linking force and they put less emphasis on it, and frequently do not consider at all, the modern practices linked to quality management such as employee involvement or continuous quality improvement. Indeed, they concentrate their attention on the computer integration/automation model.† But for quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement insists on involving all these aspects. {Good one} Quality control is defined as operational with activities aimed both at monitoring a process and eliminating causes of unsatisfactory performance for relevant stages of the quality loop to achieve economic effectiveness. Quality control is a technique to achieve, maintain and improve the quality standard of products and service. Defects or failures in constructed facilities or products can result in very large costs. {500} the emphasis on quality control is clear to achieve complete quality management and for this quality control tools are vital to be implemented. Quality improvement requires improvement of processes in process based quality improvement approach. To improve the quality hence several inspection tools can be applied to access the processes and find the ways to improve it to get better and better results. Also the basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization. {800} has suggested following significant tools for the quality management in respect of each quality component: Quality Control Quality Assurance Quality Improvement Statistical process control Regression Process capability analysis, Rule-based reasoning (Expert Systems) Factor analysis Pareto analysis Model-based reasoning and case-based reasoning Cause and effect diagram Process mapping, design of experiments Failure Mode and Effect Analysis Quality function deployment Design of Experiments Design of experiments Analysis of variance Table 1 Above mentioned tools when used in combinations as best suitable for the processes and enterprise could produce massive increase in overall performance of the organization. Few of these tools and their significance in quality managemet is illustrated below: 2.3 Statistical Process Control The appearance of computers on the shop floor has enhanced the increased adoption of SPC. Computers have greatly reduced the efforts required by production personnel to collect and analyze data.{very good journal} â€Å"High quality products and services, far from being random or probabilistic events, are actually anticipated and managed outcomes that can contribute to organizational survival in the marketplace. This realization has encouraged organizations to embrace and implement numerous approaches, some novel and some re-discovered, aimed at achieving the objective of continuous quality improvement. One popular and widespread implementation in the name of quality management is that of statistical process control, or SPC. [19] Statistical Process Control or SPC can be used in a organization for the quality control purpose. It when applied to a process gives the stability of that process which can eventually help in identifing the root causes and take corrective actions.â€Å"The basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization.†[20] SPC is an effective tool for controlling quality of a manufacturing process rather it can be applied to most of the processes in any organization and can aid in controlling the quality as per requirements. It identifies the sources that affects the quality of the process outputs and hence can be eradicated as identified. But there lies a problem with the use of it that is interpreting the results of SPC which can be only well understood by quality control specialists. This can create communication gaps and a lot of other misconceptions about its use. But still SPC is being used to control quality from a number of years and it has proved itself to be giving enormously positive results to the organizations. â€Å"The popularity of SPC as a quality management practice has been fostered, in part, by a wealth of publications ascribing quality and cost benefits to it. The literature is dominated by anecdotal â€Å"success† stories, attributing higher market share, lower failure costs, higher product quality, and higher productivity to the implementation and practice of SPC (Dondero, 1991). Reports of SPC failures, on the contrary, have been few and, again, case-oriented (Dale Shaw, 1991; Lightburn Dale, 1992).†[22] Evans and Lindsay (1989, pp. 313-3 14), define SPC to be a methodology using control charts for assisting operators, supervisors, and managers to monitor quality of conformance and to eliminate special causes of variability of a process a technique to control quality using probability and statistics to determine and maintain the state of statistical control.[23 Hence the advantages and effectiveness can well be understood from the above discussion and its can be c oncluded that SPC can play a major role in controling any process and eliminating any cause that disturbs the process as its main idea is to enable the quality of conformance to be monitored and special causes of process variability to be eliminated. 2.4 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis Failure Mode and Effect Analysis is tool that can be used to analyse the failures that can occur in the near future or after the implementation of the system and identify the effects that it would cause to the system. â€Å"Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is known to be a systematic procedure for the analysis of a system to identify the potential failure modes, their causes and effects on system performance. The analysis is successfully performed preferably early in the development cycle so that removal or mitigation of the failure mode is most cost effective. This analysis can be initiated as soon as the system is defined: FMEA timing is essential.† [24] 1 below shows some random forms as an example of FMEA version 1, 2 3 charts. For FMEA to be effective its is very important to use this tool in the early development phase as catching errors and fixing them in earlier stages is more effectual and less costly. FMEA can be implemented to the highest level of block diagram to the functions of the of the discrete components. Also FMEA can be used again and again as the design is developed. â€Å"The FMEA is an iterative process that is updated as the design develops. Design changes will require that relevant parts of the FMEA be reviewed and updated.† [24] Hence FMEA could play an imperative role in going for the process changing for improvement. The change planned for the process for improving it can be verified by the application of this technique. 2.5 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) QFD has been used along with the integration of other effective tools to achieve quality in processes and products, reducing cycle times and improving performance. {600} found out that in the span of the first seven years, between 1977 and 1984, the Toyota Auto body plant employed QFD and claimed that with its use: Manufacturing startup and pre-production costs were reduced by 60%. The product development cycle (that is, time to market) was reduced by 33% with a corresponding improvement in quality because of the reduction in the number of engineering changes. Quality function deployment QFD is based on the concept of companywide quality control. The company wide quality control philosophy is characterised by customer orientation, cross functional management and process rather than product orientation. Also the roots of Japanese companywide quality control are the same concepts of statistical quality control and total quality control as originated in the USA. 2.6 Quality Improvement A Need or A Neccessity In the technological advanced manufacturing industry today, organziations are trying their level best to imorove their quality standards yet reducing their cycle times and time to reach the market. This pushes them to adopt the latest availaible technologies to manage and inject quality into their products and processes, so that the production time is not effected by increasing concern of quality management. Nowadays there is a tough competition in every . Aberdeen Group has done an extensive research on Enterprise Manufacturing Intelligence and it says that the best in class organzaitions are â€Å"ensuring that continuois improvement programs yeild the expected results help to unlock hidden capabilities as well as allows for greater flexibility in altering schedule to meet shifting demands. It is essential that executives are provided visibility across plants, product lines and demand when making decisions on delivery, discounts and staffing. Many companies can manufacture the sam e product in mutiple facilities and are continually evaluating the most cost effective loaction to manufacture based on a mutitude of factors. Finally, establishing key performance indicators mapped to corporate goals allows shop floor process across different plants to be standardized and alligned to the goals of senior management.† [27] The focus is on ensuring continuous improvement programs and establishing key performance indicating targets that eventually supports corporate goals. Also what is part of best in class manufaturers strategic goals is to provide visibility across the plants, production lines and demands, This would help the exectives of the organzaition to understand monitor the performanc of ongoing processes. In the survey carried out by aberdeen group following percentage was calculated of the best in class organizations of the top three strategic actions taken by them: The above research indication shows the top three strategic actions of the Best-In-Class organizations and all of these actions are quality related. This very well proves that for the organizations that wants to be included in the best in class list or that wants to stay in best in class list must improve their quality standards as per the market and industries requirements. Hence quality improvement could be termed as the necessity of todays era and to survive in todays market an organization needs to update it quality management systems. All the indicators from research above points towards the advancements in quality management and that lead us to the topic of quality management systems of today that is Web-based quality management. CHAPTER 3 Quality Management Systems From time to time quality gurus and scholars have only been focusing and trying to develope appropriate control charts for processes, but now due to the advancements in technology and shifting towards real time quality management Web-base Quality Management Systems Web-base Quality Management Systems Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Defining Quality, History and Achieving International Quality Standards Quality is a perceptual, conditional and somewhat subjective attribute and may be understood differently by different people in different spheres of life. It is a degree or grade of excellence or worth, a characteristic property that defines the apparent individual nature of something or totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. In recent years, many organisations have adopted quality management systems to improve the quality of both goods and services through the application of efficient quality management methods and principles (Feigenbaum, 2000). The reason why so many organisations have started on the journey is either because of customer pressure for ISO 9000 certification or because the firms themselves have realised the strategic advantage of having this certificate, i.e. it would give them an edge over their competitors. Most of the firms which started out on the journey to ISO 9000 still may not have completed that journey. In general, it takes 2 years, and obtaining this coveted certificate is only a first step towards the ultimate goal: total quality management (TQM). Reaching this goal may take at least 5 years. In the next sections of the dissertation we will take a closer look at the characteristics of the different quality management systems. In this section, we concentrate on the concept of quality itself. We start with the two types of quality, namely: Objective quality, which is simply the products total number of quality attributes. Subjective quality, which is a result of the consumers experience of the products objective attributes. Subjective quality is thus defined as the degree of fulfillment of consumers expectations (Feigenbaum, 2000). Beyond the customers desirable expectations, there are always the customers latent expectations. Manufacturers and the service providers must therefore find the hidden expectations in order to keep the customer satisfied. It is subjective quality which matters to the company, and it is this definition which Deming used in his renowned eight-day quality seminars for Japanese top managers in 1950. Demings message to them was simple but powerful: The consumer is the most important part of the production line. The idea that customers should be seen as a part of the production line was in itself a revolutionary one at that time. A logical conclusion is that quality production is only possible if it is systematically and continuously based on customer desires and needs. It is simple in theory but difficult in practice because there are many obstacles to overcome along the way. Demings 14 points, which we have taken the liberty of calling stations along the way, are among the most important means of overcoming these obstacles. You may ask this important question: Why have the Japanese been better at understanding Demings message than the Western world? There are many reasons for this, but one of the most intriguing reasons may be found in the Japanese language, and thus in Japanese culture. In the Japanese language, quality management can be translated as quality is equal to the attributes of the things (i.e. what peoples talk about). This interpretation results in the following definition of quality management: Control of the attributes of a product which consumers talk about. To understand why consumers talk about a products attributes, we will delve into motivation theory. Herzberg has divided motivation into two factors: Factors which create satisfaction (satisfiers). Factors which create dissatisfaction (dissatisfiers). Similarly, many objective attributes of a product or service can be categorised. We may talk about the basic attributes that the consumer expects when he/she buys the product. If these are not present in sufficient quantities, the consumer experiences dissatisfaction. If the expected attributes are present, naturally the consumer is satisfied, but the interesting and crucial thing is that the degree of satisfaction will not necessarily be particularly high. The experience will be more or less neutral. Apart from the attributes which the customer expects to find, it is always possible to build attributes into the product or service which the customer does not expect to find, i.e. attributes which will delight or satisfy him/her. The more of these attributes that are present in the product or services, the greater the satisfaction, and this satisfaction will, in many cases, increase significantly. We call these attributes value-added quality. However, in Japan they use the term charming quality, whereas in the US they interpret this as exciting quality. We believe that value-added quality covers both. One example of expected quality in air travel is safety. Korean Air lost its reputation as a quality airline in the wake of the tragic incident of a passenger airline being shot down over Soviet territory. Prior to this incident, Korean Air was rated as one of the top quality airlines in the world. Afterwards, Korean Airs quality ratings dropped significantly. In our view, the only thing which can adequately explain this is that Korean Air had failed to deliver the customers expected quality. As an example of value-added quality, let us consider the added service offered by ISS Laundry Service, a subsidiary of International Service Systems (ISS). This company which, among other activities, changes bed-linen in hotel rooms, suddenly had an idea. As they were there to change the sheets, they might as well see if anything else needed doing, e.g. small repairs, changing light-bulbs, etc., and report this to the hotel management. This unexpected service, which hardly costs ISS anything, created an enormous amount of goodwill for the company among its customers. The understanding behind Demings assertion, that the consumer is the most important aspect of the production line, lies precisely in the subjective definition of quality, which we will be discussing in this dissertation. The introduction of quality management theory towards the end of the 1980s led to the development of a new concept called total quality. This concept was defined as follows (Kanji, 2002): Qualityis to satisfy customers requirements continuously. Total qualityis to achieve quality at low cost. Total quality managementis to obtain total quality by involving everyones daily commitment. These definitions will become clearer as we proceed through the dissertation. The objective of TQM is to improve continuously each and every activity in the company focusing on the customer. Every product has some deficiency, i.e. risks for making customers dissatisfied. These deficiencies must be continually eliminated and, at the same time, the firm must ensure that its product or service always incorporate the quality attributes which satisfy its customers. 1.2 Total quality management The concept of TQM is a logical development of total quality control (TQC), a concept first introduced by A. V. Feigenbaum in 2000 in a book of the same name. Though Feigenbaum had other things in mind with TQC, it only really caught on in engineering circles, and thus never achieved the total acceptance in British companies that was intended. TQC was a hit in Japan, on the other hand, where the first quality circles were set up in 1962, which later developed into what the Japanese themselves call company-wide quality control (CWQC). this is identical to what people in the West today call TQM. One of the main reasons for the failure of TQC in British companies was a management misconception that responsibility for implementing TQC could be delegated to a central quality department. In doing so, management overlooked one of the most important points in TQC, namely managements wholehearted commitment to quality improvements. The aim of the new concept, TQM, is to ensure that history does not repeat itself. Thus, management have been directly included in the definition of the concept, making it impossible for them to avoid their responsibility. To include the word management here sends an unmistakable signal straight into executive offices that this is a job for top management, including the board of directors. TQM will be further discussed in following chapters. Chapter 2 Quality Perspectives The inadequacy of traditional management in UK Japan Traditional British forms of management are based on a philosophy which divides responsibility for decisions into strategic, tactical and operational levels, i.e. the so-called management pyramid. We now know that this management conception is totally inadequate for modern, complex companies, since it does not give the connection between top management and the main processes at the bottom responsible for customer satisfaction. As a result, the management is ignorant of the real problems on the operational level, and do not provide the support and backing that the operation level needs for the creation of customer satisfaction (Feigenbaum, 2000). The decisions which cascade down from top management are often exclusively budgetary in nature, containing instructions which are forced on lower levels without due consideration of their problems. Many local branches of a bank have similar experiences. A typical example of this was noted after some Danish bank mergers took place at the, end of the 1980s. Branch managers of these banks received orders by internal post to cut staff numbers by a certain figure with no indication of how this could be achieved without drastically reducing the quality of products and services offered to their customers. Hiromoto (2002) describes this as management by terrorism. In discussing British and Japanese management philosophy, Konosuke Matsushita, founder of one of the worlds biggest companies, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic, National, Technics, etc.), said: We are going to win and the industrial West is going to lose out: theres nothing much you can do about it, because the reasons for your failure are within yourselves. Your firms are built on the Taylor model; even worse, so are your heads. With your bosses doing the thinking while the workers wield the screwdrivers, youre convinced deep down that this is the right way to run a business. For you, the essence of management is getting the ideas out of the heads of the bosses into the hands of labour. (p). Hoinville (2002) feels that the emphasis of managements commitment has its origin in the system, the reason for quality defects. It has been estimated that 85% of all defects are caused by system errors, i.e. errors which only management has the authority to change. Management must show by its actions that it has understood the message. It must constantly strive to reduce system errors by setting up quality goals, drawing up quality policies and quality plans, and participating actively in the follow-up auditing phase. Finally, management must concede its own lack of knowledge in the quality field and take the lead in acquiring new knowledge. If management does all this, it will have created a firm foundation on which future quality can be built. Conversely, there would be little point in building quality on a shaky foundation. We have already pointed out that the customer is the most important part of the production line. Deming (2002) introduced this idea to top Japanese managers in 1950 by means of a basic outline of an arbitrary production system, or part of a production system. This outline, which must today be considered traditional, shows that both customer and supplier are part of the production system, and that information for improving this comes from two sources: consumer research and process tests. Since this outline also applies to an arbitrary sub-system, it shows that customer and supplier concepts embrace much more than just external customers and suppliers. Internal customers and suppliers, i.e. employees, are at least as important as the external ones. Any person, or process, which forms part of the production system must recognise that it serves a number of internal customers, and the quality of the output delivered to these customers is crucial to the end result, i.e. the quality of the output delivered to the external customer. Deming (2002) himself concedes that, in 1950, this was a formidable challenge for the Japanese top managers, but they accepted the challenge, and the result is there for us all to see today. In Demings words: A new economic age had begun. Today it is difficult to understand that such a simple message presented the Japanese with such a difficult challenge. Our experience of top managers is that they accept the message without question. However, this does not lessen the difficulty of the challenge, because it implies that firms traditional information systems are totally inadequate. A culture must be established to ensure that internal customer research functions just as well as external. Here, it is important to point out that internal analysis is based on entirely different principles from external analysis. Communication and team-building are the key words here. Obviously, the participation of top management is necessary in building up this culture. It can be seen that the Focus on the customer and the employee is much more comprehensive than just the focus on the customer, which is the norm in service management. The latter refers solely to external customers. The former, while including these, also stresses the internal customer/supplier relationship. This relationship is one of the most important innovations which TQM has introduced. Quality Management In Todays Era As we have discussed above that how the management of quality is vital to the output product of any organization it has made clear that without an excellent quality management system an organization can not implement total quality management. In todays era new ways of quality management have been introduced that can make quality management a much easier and effective job for the management body. Technology has been quiet advance in todays world and every organization is trying to get its hand on the most advance technology that can take it to a much higher level from its competitiors. A new emerging technology for managing quality in well established organizations is the use of Web-Based Quality Management Systems. Why this technology is vital today is beacuse of organizations expanding their businesses worldwide or operating at different geoghraphical locations. It is much easier to manage the quality in an organization that is operating at one location but if it has its operations going on at different locations it is much harder to implement and manage total quality management. But these new systems have overcome this gap by providing a centralized hub to manage the quality. No matter how scattered the operations of the organizations are and how many stake holders are involved, by implementing these systems organizations need not to worry about the distance and communication gap. Competition and cost consciousness on the one side an increasing demand for quality and reliability on the other side are contrary requirements in present production engineering. This must be considered also from the point of view of the international standards about quality management and quality assurance. The origins of quality management and quality assurance in a modern sense began in manufacturing organizations at about the beginning of the twentieth century [1], and many of the tools for quality analysis and improvement were developed for manufacturing problems. Through the 1980s, this manufacturing emphasis dominated the profession. In the late 1980s and into the 1990s, business began to recognise the importance of quality service in achieving customer satisfaction and competing in the global marketplace. In the late 1990s also the public domain and governmental departments became aware of the general importance of quality issues. In a very important sense, this recognition has expanded the definition and  concept of quality to include nearly any organisational improvement such as the reduction of manufacturing cycle time and improved worker skills. And also the public sector is now starting to take care of quality management within its structures. In addition to industrial organisations and the manufacturing industry also service organisations build up quality systems. Ancillary services in manufacturing companies as well as stand-alone service organisations such as hospitals and banks are beginning to realise the benefits of a focus on quality. A number of different industries are successively doing business around the globe and the quality systems that are availaible in the market does not mostly cater a specific industry and all of them provide different features, tools and options, so it is a complex decision to choose the best availaible solution from a wide range of variety. In this dissertation different availaible web-based quality management systems are reviewed and their shortnesses are pointed out and a model is proposed in the end that covers all gaps in the currently availaible systems. Chapter 2: Literature Review In this chapter literature review is carried out and analyzed that which tools and schemes are imperative for the management of quality and how they cooperate in the quality management. This will enable to know how different branches of an organization can be indulged with quality by using what sort of tools and how these tools can benifit any organization. â€Å"The approach to quality most extensively adopted by Western companies in recent years has been the application of national and international (ISO 9000 or equivalent) quality management standards. This approach is following firmly along the quality assurance path. It is more proactive than reliance on detection/inspection and allows for the use of quality tools primarily to stop non-conforming products being produced or non-conforming services being delivered in the first place. Hence there is a switch implied from detection to prevention via quality systems, procedures and a quality manual.† [18] 2.1 Quality Management Tools Techniques Numerous definitions and methodologies have been created to assist in managing the quality-affecting aspects of business operations. Many different techniques and concepts have evolved to improve product or service quality. Tools and techniques like charts, graphs, histograms and complex tools like Statistical Process Control, Quality Function Deployment, Failure Mode and Effect Analysis and Design of Experiments have been used for quality management for a number of years. All of these tools are very effective for quality evaluation and implementation when applied rightly and at correct situation. Juan Jose Tari and Vicente Sabater {Quality management tools} in their research on â€Å"Quality tools and Techniques† has outlined few important tools and techniques that can be luminously helping in managing and increasing organizations quality standards. The very basic tools, the management tools for quality and techniques for quality management are outlined in the table below: Basic Quality Management Tools Management Tools Techniques Cause Effect Diagram Affinity Diagram Benchmarking Check Sheet Arrow Diagram Design of Experiments Control chart Matrix Diagram FMEA Graphs Matrix Data Analysis Fault Tree Analysis Histoghram Process Decision Poka Yoke Pareto Diagram Program Chart Quality Costing Scatter Diagram Relations Diagram QFD Statistical Process Control Table 1 Quality Management Tools and Techniques Each indivisual tool has its own speciality and benifits the organization in its own manner. The implementation and benifits of few of these tools are discussed in the next section. 2.2 Quality Control, Assurance and Improvement The scholars of quality assume that the computer is only the linking force and they put less emphasis on it, and frequently do not consider at all, the modern practices linked to quality management such as employee involvement or continuous quality improvement. Indeed, they concentrate their attention on the computer integration/automation model.† But for quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement insists on involving all these aspects. {Good one} Quality control is defined as operational with activities aimed both at monitoring a process and eliminating causes of unsatisfactory performance for relevant stages of the quality loop to achieve economic effectiveness. Quality control is a technique to achieve, maintain and improve the quality standard of products and service. Defects or failures in constructed facilities or products can result in very large costs. {500} the emphasis on quality control is clear to achieve complete quality management and for this quality control tools are vital to be implemented. Quality improvement requires improvement of processes in process based quality improvement approach. To improve the quality hence several inspection tools can be applied to access the processes and find the ways to improve it to get better and better results. Also the basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization. {800} has suggested following significant tools for the quality management in respect of each quality component: Quality Control Quality Assurance Quality Improvement Statistical process control Regression Process capability analysis, Rule-based reasoning (Expert Systems) Factor analysis Pareto analysis Model-based reasoning and case-based reasoning Cause and effect diagram Process mapping, design of experiments Failure Mode and Effect Analysis Quality function deployment Design of Experiments Design of experiments Analysis of variance Table 1 Above mentioned tools when used in combinations as best suitable for the processes and enterprise could produce massive increase in overall performance of the organization. Few of these tools and their significance in quality managemet is illustrated below: 2.3 Statistical Process Control The appearance of computers on the shop floor has enhanced the increased adoption of SPC. Computers have greatly reduced the efforts required by production personnel to collect and analyze data.{very good journal} â€Å"High quality products and services, far from being random or probabilistic events, are actually anticipated and managed outcomes that can contribute to organizational survival in the marketplace. This realization has encouraged organizations to embrace and implement numerous approaches, some novel and some re-discovered, aimed at achieving the objective of continuous quality improvement. One popular and widespread implementation in the name of quality management is that of statistical process control, or SPC. [19] Statistical Process Control or SPC can be used in a organization for the quality control purpose. It when applied to a process gives the stability of that process which can eventually help in identifing the root causes and take corrective actions.â€Å"The basic goal of using quality control techniques is to streamline the manufacturing system by minimizing the occurrence of quality related problems. Most of the time, problems related to quality of products have many controllable sources, be it the vendors of raw materials, equipment used to process such materials, methods used for processing, the personnel involved or any other specific source as identified by the organization.†[20] SPC is an effective tool for controlling quality of a manufacturing process rather it can be applied to most of the processes in any organization and can aid in controlling the quality as per requirements. It identifies the sources that affects the quality of the process outputs and hence can be eradicated as identified. But there lies a problem with the use of it that is interpreting the results of SPC which can be only well understood by quality control specialists. This can create communication gaps and a lot of other misconceptions about its use. But still SPC is being used to control quality from a number of years and it has proved itself to be giving enormously positive results to the organizations. â€Å"The popularity of SPC as a quality management practice has been fostered, in part, by a wealth of publications ascribing quality and cost benefits to it. The literature is dominated by anecdotal â€Å"success† stories, attributing higher market share, lower failure costs, higher product quality, and higher productivity to the implementation and practice of SPC (Dondero, 1991). Reports of SPC failures, on the contrary, have been few and, again, case-oriented (Dale Shaw, 1991; Lightburn Dale, 1992).†[22] Evans and Lindsay (1989, pp. 313-3 14), define SPC to be a methodology using control charts for assisting operators, supervisors, and managers to monitor quality of conformance and to eliminate special causes of variability of a process a technique to control quality using probability and statistics to determine and maintain the state of statistical control.[23 Hence the advantages and effectiveness can well be understood from the above discussion and its can be c oncluded that SPC can play a major role in controling any process and eliminating any cause that disturbs the process as its main idea is to enable the quality of conformance to be monitored and special causes of process variability to be eliminated. 2.4 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis Failure Mode and Effect Analysis is tool that can be used to analyse the failures that can occur in the near future or after the implementation of the system and identify the effects that it would cause to the system. â€Å"Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is known to be a systematic procedure for the analysis of a system to identify the potential failure modes, their causes and effects on system performance. The analysis is successfully performed preferably early in the development cycle so that removal or mitigation of the failure mode is most cost effective. This analysis can be initiated as soon as the system is defined: FMEA timing is essential.† [24] 1 below shows some random forms as an example of FMEA version 1, 2 3 charts. For FMEA to be effective its is very important to use this tool in the early development phase as catching errors and fixing them in earlier stages is more effectual and less costly. FMEA can be implemented to the highest level of block diagram to the functions of the of the discrete components. Also FMEA can be used again and again as the design is developed. â€Å"The FMEA is an iterative process that is updated as the design develops. Design changes will require that relevant parts of the FMEA be reviewed and updated.† [24] Hence FMEA could play an imperative role in going for the process changing for improvement. The change planned for the process for improving it can be verified by the application of this technique. 2.5 Quality Function Deployment (QFD) QFD has been used along with the integration of other effective tools to achieve quality in processes and products, reducing cycle times and improving performance. {600} found out that in the span of the first seven years, between 1977 and 1984, the Toyota Auto body plant employed QFD and claimed that with its use: Manufacturing startup and pre-production costs were reduced by 60%. The product development cycle (that is, time to market) was reduced by 33% with a corresponding improvement in quality because of the reduction in the number of engineering changes. Quality function deployment QFD is based on the concept of companywide quality control. The company wide quality control philosophy is characterised by customer orientation, cross functional management and process rather than product orientation. Also the roots of Japanese companywide quality control are the same concepts of statistical quality control and total quality control as originated in the USA. 2.6 Quality Improvement A Need or A Neccessity In the technological advanced manufacturing industry today, organziations are trying their level best to imorove their quality standards yet reducing their cycle times and time to reach the market. This pushes them to adopt the latest availaible technologies to manage and inject quality into their products and processes, so that the production time is not effected by increasing concern of quality management. Nowadays there is a tough competition in every . Aberdeen Group has done an extensive research on Enterprise Manufacturing Intelligence and it says that the best in class organzaitions are â€Å"ensuring that continuois improvement programs yeild the expected results help to unlock hidden capabilities as well as allows for greater flexibility in altering schedule to meet shifting demands. It is essential that executives are provided visibility across plants, product lines and demand when making decisions on delivery, discounts and staffing. Many companies can manufacture the sam e product in mutiple facilities and are continually evaluating the most cost effective loaction to manufacture based on a mutitude of factors. Finally, establishing key performance indicators mapped to corporate goals allows shop floor process across different plants to be standardized and alligned to the goals of senior management.† [27] The focus is on ensuring continuous improvement programs and establishing key performance indicating targets that eventually supports corporate goals. Also what is part of best in class manufaturers strategic goals is to provide visibility across the plants, production lines and demands, This would help the exectives of the organzaition to understand monitor the performanc of ongoing processes. In the survey carried out by aberdeen group following percentage was calculated of the best in class organizations of the top three strategic actions taken by them: The above research indication shows the top three strategic actions of the Best-In-Class organizations and all of these actions are quality related. This very well proves that for the organizations that wants to be included in the best in class list or that wants to stay in best in class list must improve their quality standards as per the market and industries requirements. Hence quality improvement could be termed as the necessity of todays era and to survive in todays market an organization needs to update it quality management systems. All the indicators from research above points towards the advancements in quality management and that lead us to the topic of quality management systems of today that is Web-based quality management. CHAPTER 3 Quality Management Systems From time to time quality gurus and scholars have only been focusing and trying to develope appropriate control charts for processes, but now due to the advancements in technology and shifting towards real time quality management